Unraveling the Lost Kingdoms of Southeast Asia

To travel through Thailand, Cambodia, and Vietnam is to walk on the grounds of fallen empires. The lines on modern maps dissolve, and you find yourself in a world of god-kings, maritime traders, and warrior monks. My journey to find the essence of the past led me from Ayutthaya's magnificent ruins to the stories of Vietnam's resilient heroes, revealing a history that is not a set of isolated stories, but a single, epic tapestry woven from power, faith, and ambition.

To truly understand this region, you have to know the players who built it. Here’s a rundown of the great civilizations whose legacies are still etched into the landscape.

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A Tapestry of Kingdoms: The Great Civilizations

The Early Powers: Funan & Chenla (c. 1st–9th centuries)

Long before Angkor Wat pierced the sky, the Mekong Delta was ruled by the first great powers of the region.

• Funan: This was a legendary maritime trading empire, a network of port cities thriving on the trade route between China and India. It was heavily "Indianized," adopting Hinduism, Sanskrit, and Indian models of kingship. Funan was the region's first economic powerhouse.

• Chenla: As Funan's power waned, its inland vassal state, Chenla, rose to prominence. It is considered the direct predecessor of the Khmer Empire. Chenla unified larger territories and laid the political and cultural groundwork for the Angkorian era.

The Khmer Empire (c. 802–1431) 🏛️

From the foundations of Chenla rose one of the most powerful and sophisticated empires in world history.

• Who: The ancestors of modern Cambodians. At its zenith, the Khmer Empire controlled vast territories, including parts of modern-day Thailand, Laos, and Vietnam.

• Legacy: The Khmer were master builders and hydrologists. They constructed the incredible temple-city of Angkor Wat, a stunning stone representation of the Hindu cosmos, and the sprawling city of Angkor Thom. Their empire was built on a complex system of water management (barays and canals) that supported a massive population. Their art, religion (first Hinduism, later Mahayana Buddhism), and concept of the god-king (devaraja) profoundly influenced all neighboring kingdoms.

The Champa Kingdom (c. 2nd century–1832) ⛵

Along the coast of modern-day central and southern Vietnam, the Cham people built a formidable maritime kingdom.

• Who: An Austronesian people, the Cham were skilled sailors and traders. Their kingdom was a collection of city-states.

• Legacy: Champa was a constant rival to both the Khmer Empire to its west and the Vietnamese (Đại Việt) to its north. Their culture was also heavily Indianized, and their stunning brick temple towers, like those at Mỹ Sơn, still stand today. They were eventually conquered and absorbed by the relentless southward march of the Vietnamese.

Đại Việt & Its Great Dynasties (c. 10th century–1802) 🐉

After a thousand years of Chinese domination, the Vietnamese forged their own powerful state, Đại Việt ("Great Viet").

• The Trung Sisters (c. 40 AD): Long before independence, the spirit of resistance was embodied by Trung Trắc and Trung Nhị. These two aristocratic sisters led a massive rebellion against Chinese rule. Though their revolt was eventually crushed, they are revered today as national heroines, a powerful symbol of Vietnam's unwillingness to be dominated.

• Đại Việt: This kingdom proved to be a resilient and organized power. While they adopted Chinese models of bureaucracy, civil service exams, and Mahayana Buddhism, they maintained a fierce sense of their own unique identity.

• The Trần Dynasty (1225–1400): You mentioned "Truyen"—this likely refers to the great Trần Dynasty. They are most famous for one of the greatest military feats in world history: they successfully repelled three massive invasions by the Mongol armies of Kublai Khan in the 13th century, a feat few other nations can claim. Their victory cemented Vietnam's status as a regional military power.

The Rise of the Thai Kingdoms 🐘

As the Khmer Empire began its slow decline in the 13th century, a new power emerged: the Thai people, migrating southward from China.

• Sukhothai (c. 1238–1438): Considered the "Dawn of Happiness" and the cradle of Thai civilization. The Sukhothai Kingdom established a distinct Thai identity, created the Thai alphabet, and adopted Theravada Buddhism, which remains the dominant religion today. Their style of art, especially the elegant, walking Buddha statues, is iconic.

• Lanna (c. 1292–1775): A powerful contemporary kingdom in the north, with its capital at Chiang Mai. The Lanna Kingdom was a culturally rich and independent state, often serving as a rival to both Sukhothai and Ayutthaya. They had their own unique script, artistic style, and architectural traditions.

• Ayutthaya (1351–1767): The true successor to the Khmer. Ayutthaya absorbed Sukhothai and grew into a cosmopolitan trading empire. As we explored in my last post, it became one of the wealthiest cities in the world, a brilliant fusion of cultures that defined what we now know as classical Thai art, culture, and cuisine before its eventual destruction by the Burmese.

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Echoes of a Fallen Kingdom: Finding the Soul of Ayutthaya

What happens when a great civilization falls? Do its stories turn to dust along with its monuments? I'm on a journey to find the essence of ancient cultures that still pulses in the veins of our modern world, and my first stop is here, amidst the silent, magnificent ruins of Ayutthaya, Thailand.

For over 400 years, this city was a glittering metropolis, a “Venice of the East” renowned for its staggering wealth and global influence. Standing here, you can almost hear the whispers of merchants, the chants of monks, and the drama of the royal court. This isn't just a day trip from Bangkok; it's a journey back in time to understand the soul of a kingdom that, despite its violent end, never truly left.

The World at Its Gates: How Ayutthaya Built Its Wealth व्यापार

Ayutthaya’s power was built on water. An island city, protected by a loop of three rivers, it was a natural fortress and the perfect nexus for global trade. Long before "globalization" was a buzzword, Ayutthaya was living it.

Merchants from Portugal, the Netherlands, Japan, China, and Persia sailed up the Chao Phraya River, establishing communities right here in the capital. They came for Siamese silks, fragrant hardwoods, and exotic spices, trading them for firearms, fine ceramics, and textiles from their homelands. The Ayutthayan kings were brilliant administrators, establishing a royal monopoly on the most valuable goods and taxing the rest. This system funneled unimaginable wealth into the kingdom, funding the construction of the hundreds of golden temples that once dominated the skyline.

Life on the Water: A Glimpse into a Lost Way of Life 🛶

Walking through the ruins, you see a city of brick and stone. But for the common people, Ayutthaya was a city of wood and water. Most lived in wooden houses on stilts along a dense network of canals, their boats serving as the family car. The floating markets weren't a tourist attraction; they were the lifeblood of the city.

Society was governed by the Sakdina system, a rigid hierarchy where every person, from the god-king (devaraja) down to the lowest commoner, was assigned a rank and a corresponding measure of land. This structure dictated one's entire life, yet within it, a uniquely Thai culture flourished—a blend of sophisticated court arts, literature, and a deep devotion to Theravada Buddhism.

Royal Intrigue, Scandal, and a Kingdom's End 👑

The history of Ayutthaya reads like a dramatic TV series, filled with passion, betrayal, and tragedy.

One of the most infamous stories is that of Queen Sri Sudachan in the 16th century. In a shocking breach of protocol, she began a secret affair with a palace guard, Worawongsathirat. Consumed by ambition, she is believed to have poisoned her husband, the king. She then placed her young son on the throne and made her lover the regent, only to have the child-king murdered soon after, allowing Worawongsathirat to usurp the throne. Their bloody power grab was short-lived; outraged nobles ambushed and executed them both, restoring order to the court.

Centuries later, this vibrant kingdom met its tragic end. The last king, Ekkathat, is remembered as a ruler who failed to heed the warnings of the impending Burmese invasion. As the enemy laid siege to the city for over a year, the court was paralyzed by indecision. In 1767, the walls were breached, and the glorious city was sacked and burned to the ground. Ayutthaya, the unbeatable capital, had fallen.

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Land of the Ascending Dragon: Uncovering Vietnam's Layered Past

After leaving the grand ruins of Thailand, my journey into the past took me east to the shores of Vietnam. If Thailand’s story is one of a unified, powerful kingdom, Vietnam’s is one of relentless resilience, a nation forged in the crucible of a thousand-year struggle for identity. Here in Central Vietnam, from the ancient port of Da Nang to the imperial majesty of Hue, every stone tells a story of conquest, cultural fusion, and an unbreakable spirit.

This is a land of layers. Beneath the surface of modern life lies the maritime empire of the Champa, the imperial ambition of the Nguyễn Dynasty, and the echoes of heroes who stood against the world’s most powerful armies.

Da Nang & The Lost Kingdom of Champa ⛵

Our journey begins in Da Nang, a city that has been a bustling port since at least the 2nd century. But long before it was a modern metropolis, this coastline was the heartland of the Champa Kingdom.

• Mỹ Sơn Sanctuary: A short drive from Da Nang lies a sacred valley, home to the ruins of Mỹ Sơn. Walking among these crumbling red-brick towers feels like stepping into another world. This was the spiritual center of the Champa, a Hindu civilization that ruled this coast for over a millennium. The temples, dedicated to the god Shiva, are a testament to their incredible architectural and artistic skill.

• Da Nang Museum of Cham Sculpture: To truly understand the Champa, you must visit this museum. It holds the world's largest collection of their art. Here, you'll see graceful statues of gods and dancers. We saw a figure of the bodhisattva Tara with extra fingers and eyes on her palms. This isn't a mistake; it’s rich with symbolism. The extra eyes and limbs signify her divine, all-seeing compassion and her ability to reach out and help countless beings in distress simultaneously.

• Marble Mountain's Legacy: The five limestone hills of Marble Mountain are a site of Buddhist pilgrimage today, but their story is tied to the Champa. Local legend tells of a Champa princess who, after her king died, refused to follow the custom of dying with him. She escaped, became a nun here, and passed on the Champa’s masterful techniques of marble sculpting to the Vietnamese people. This story acts as a beautiful cultural memory, honoring the Champa legacy that was absorbed into modern Vietnam.

Hue: The Last Imperial Echo 👑

A journey north takes you to Hue, the former imperial capital and the seat of the Nguyễn Dynasty, Vietnam's last royal family. The vast, moated Imperial City is a world unto itself, a place of profound symbolism and rigid etiquette.

As we walked through the citadel, our guide pointed out details I would have missed. There were specific gates for different entrances: one for the king, others for civil and military officials, and massive gates for the elephant and horse soldiers. Inside, the approach to the Throne Hall is built on three terraces, a design rooted in ancient cosmology, representing the trinity of Heaven, Humanity, and Earth.

Inside the main hall, you could almost feel the presence of the emperor on his high throne. Flanking him were nine statues representing his most trusted advisors, officials, and bodyguards. It was a space designed to project absolute power and cosmic harmony.

The Unbreakable Spirit of the Vietnamese 🐉

Two stories from our trip perfectly capture Vietnam’s incredible history of resistance and strategic thinking.

• Defeating the Mongols: In Hue, we learned about the "3 Kings" who defeated the Mongols. This refers to the incredible feat of the Trần Dynasty in the 13th century. Led by emperors like Trần Thái Tông and the legendary commander Trần Hưng Đạo, the Vietnamese army managed to repel three separate invasions by the Mongol hordes of Kublai Khan, one of the most powerful military forces in history. They used clever guerrilla tactics and their knowledge of the terrain to achieve what few others could.

• The Southern March: You’ll often hear stories of strategic marriages in Vietnamese history. The 17th-century union between Princess Nguyễn Phúc Ngọc Vạn and the Khmer King was a masterstroke of diplomacy. This alliance allowed Vietnamese settlers to move into the area around modern-day Saigon, which was then Khmer territory. Over time, this demographic shift led to the peaceful annexation of the entire Mekong Delta, completing Vietnam’s “March to the South.” It shows how the Vietnamese used not just might, but also shrewd politics, to build their nation.

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Empire of Stone, Kingdom of Spirit: Finding the Living Soul of Angkor

Leaving Vietnam, our quest for ancient worlds took us to the heart of the once-mighty Khmer Empire. In Siem Reap, you don't just visit history—you are completely consumed by it. The scale of the Angkor temple complex is impossible to comprehend from pictures. It is a universe of stone, a divine blueprint where every carving tells a story of gods, kings, and cosmic battles.

But as we quickly discovered, the Khmer legacy isn't confined to the magnificent ruins. It’s alive in the explosive energy of a circus tent, in the creative retelling of myths over dinner, and in the quiet dedication of a people actively working to preserve their sacred past. This is a story of an empire of stone, but also a kingdom of unbreakable spirit.

Walking with Gods: A Journey Through the Temples

We explored ten temples, each with its own unique personality and story.

• The Icons (Angkor Wat, Angkor Thom, Bayon): You start at Angkor Wat, the breathtaking masterpiece and the world's largest religious monument. Its perfect symmetry and endless bas-reliefs are meant to be a microcosm of the Hindu universe. From there, you enter the vast walled city of Angkor Thom, at the center of which is the Bayon. Its 216 giant, serene faces stare out in every direction, an enigmatic and powerful expression of the king’s divine authority.

• The Wild Temples (Ta Prohm & Beng Mealea): Nature is the star at these sites. At Ta Prohm, the "Tomb Raider" temple, massive silk-cotton tree roots pry apart ancient walls in a slow-motion embrace of stone. The remote, unrestored temple of Beng Mealea feels like a true discovery, a colossal ruin completely surrendered to the jungle.

• The Jewels (Banteay Srey & Preah Khan): Some temples impress with scale, others with detail. The pink sandstone of Banteay Srey, the "Citadel of Women," is covered in the most intricate, delicate carvings in all of Angkor—so fine they are said to have been carved by women. Preah Khan, the "Sacred Sword," was a massive complex that served as a university and monastery, its labyrinthine corridors inviting exploration.

Art Beyond the Ruins: The Khmer Spirit Reborn

At night, Siem Reap transforms, and we saw how Khmer culture is being creatively reimagined for a new generation.

• Labyrinth – A Theatrical Dinner: Our second night was at a "digi-art" dining experience that was utterly captivating. As the synopsis shows, it wasn’t just a show; it was a journey through time. We followed two travelers from the creation of the universe and the Angkor dynasty, through a prehistoric world of dinosaurs, to a dystopian future where humans and AI clash. It was a stunning, modern interpretation of the Cambodian story.

• Phare, The Cambodian Circus: This was pure, explosive joy. More than a circus, Phare is a social enterprise that transforms the lives of Cambodian youth through art. We got a backstage tour and saw the incredible dedication of these young performers. Jasper even got to interact with the drummer! The energy, skill, and storytelling, all without a single animal, were electrifying. It was a powerful testament to the resilience and creativity of the Cambodian people. They had also just broke the Guinness World Record for a single longest circus performance. 

The Price of Preservation

We were struck by some of the realities on the ground in Siem Reap, which revealed a deep, conscious effort to protect this world heritage.

• A City in a Forest: We learned that villagers living too close to the temples were being relocated. My first thought was tourism-driven displacement, but the truth is more profound. The government is undertaking a massive reforestation project to create a natural shield against pollution. The fumes from cars and modern life create a form of acid rain that erodes the delicate sandstone carvings. This is also why the new airport was built over an hour away—to keep air traffic and its pollutants far from the monuments. It’s a huge sacrifice for the sake of preservation.

• Food with a Purpose: We noticed that food in Siem Reap was pricier than expected. The reason? A portion of the revenue from official tourism products goes directly back into the monument restoration fund. So, every meal is a micro-donation. While the cuisine itself often felt like a gentle fusion of its neighbors—the flavors of Thailand, ingredients from Vietnam, and cooking styles from China—we found some incredible street-side gems. The bamboo sticky rice and a grilled frog stuffed with lemongrass and noodles were smoky, fragrant, and uniquely Khmer.

Moments in the Monsoon

Some of the best travel moments are the ones you don't plan. Our guide prepared a beautiful picnic for us in a small shelter surrounded by lush green rice paddies. Just as we sat down, the heavens opened in a sudden, intense downpour. We were drenched, laughing, and completely immersed in the moment. It was a vibe!

Later, we found other ways to connect with the culture. We learned to play Ouk Chatrang, or Cambodian Chess, and even bought a locally made board game about the history of Angkor. The game was amazingly accurate, involving recruiting farmers and builders to construct the temples while fending off historical events like attacks from the Siamese and Champa.

Angkor is more than a collection of ancient temples. It is a living, breathing place where the past is not just remembered but actively protected, celebrated, and woven into the fabric of daily life. The Khmer Empire’s greatest legacy is not just in its magnificent stones, but in the enduring spirit of its people.

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The Silent Gap: A Commentary on What Cambodia Lost

From 1975 to 1979, Pol Pot’s regime tried to reset Cambodian society to "Year Zero." This wasn't just a political revolution; it was a cultural apocalypse. Visiting the Killing Fields or the Tuol Sleng Genocide Museum, you are faced with the question: when you try to destroy a culture, what is actually lost? The answer is far deeper than just technology and skills. It’s the very soul of a nation.

The Annihilation of Knowledge

The Khmer Rouge saw knowledge as a threat. Their primary targets were the educated. Teachers, doctors, engineers, lawyers, and artists were systematically executed. Eyeglasses were a death sentence. To speak a foreign language was treason. What was lost? An entire generation of expertise. The skills to run a hospital, design a bridge, or manage a power grid vanished. But more than that, institutional memory was wiped out. Libraries were burned, books were destroyed, and the intellectual lineage of the country was severed.

The Silencing of Art and Expression

Before the Khmer Rouge, Cambodia, particularly Phnom Penh, had a vibrant modern culture. There was a "golden age" of Cambodian rock and roll in the 60s, a unique fusion of local sounds and Western surf rock. Classical Cambodian dance, a tradition stretching back over a millennium to the courts of Angkor, was revered. What was lost? Everything. Musicians like the beloved Sinn Sisamouth were murdered, their music banned. The master dancers and teachers of the Royal Ballet were targeted for execution, and the intricate, non-verbal language of this ancient art form was nearly extinguished. All forms of personal expression—from fashion to music—were replaced by the black pajamas and revolutionary slogans of the regime.

The Uprooting of Faith and Tradition

Buddhism was the bedrock of Cambodian society. It shaped ethics, community life, and daily rituals. The Khmer Rouge declared religion a reactionary poison. What was lost? The nation's moral compass. Over 90% of Buddhist monks were killed or defrocked. Temples, the centers of village life, were desecrated—turned into prisons, storage houses, or pigsties. Centuries of spiritual tradition, festivals, and community rites that bound people together were annihilated, leaving a spiritual vacuum.

The Starvation of Cuisine and Identity

You asked about food, and the loss was profound. Food is more than sustenance; it's celebration, community, and identity. Cambodian cuisine, with its complex royal dishes and regional specialties, was a source of pride. What was lost? The culture of food itself. Under the regime, everyone was forced into communal canteens to eat watery rice gruel (borbor). Cooking for oneself was forbidden. The grandmothers who held the secrets to complex spice pastes (kroeung) and generations-old recipes starved alongside everyone else. The joy of a shared family meal, a cornerstone of any culture, was eradicated.

The Khmer Rouge didn't just kill nearly two million people; they tried to kill an entire identity. Today, Cambodia is in a slow, painful process of recovery. A new generation is working tirelessly to find the lost songs, relearn the ancient dances, and piece together the recipes from the memories of the few survivors. The vibrant spirit we saw at the Phare Circus is a defiant act of cultural rebirth. But the silent gap of those four years—the missing books, the forgotten melodies, the absent generation of grandparents—is a wound that will take centuries to heal.

 Johannesburg: A City of Streets, Struggles, and Stories

Johannesburg is not a city you simply visit — it’s a city you feel. Every corner pulses with resistance, rhythm, and revival. On my first day exploring the City of Gold, I hopped on a vibrant tuk-tuk tour that zigzagged through history and culture, from colonial courtrooms to street art havens and soulful township kitchens. Here’s how the day unfolded:

1. Constitutional Hill: A Fortress of Freedom and Former Oppression

Our journey began at Constitution Hill, once a colonial-era prison and military fort. It held South Africa’s most iconic political prisoners — including Nelson Mandela and Mahatma Gandhi — during British rule and apartheid. But today, it's home to the Constitutional Court, symbolizing the country’s hard-won democracy.

🏛 Colonial Roots and the Fight for Gold

Johannesburg’s very existence is tied to colonial conflict. When gold was discovered on the Witwatersrand in 1886, the Dutch-descended Boers (Afrikaners) and the British Empire clashed to control this new economic prize. The result? The Anglo-Boer Wars (1880–1881, 1899–1902), fought partly over the lucrative gold mining industry. The British eventually took control, establishing Johannesburg as a hub for mining and finance — but also racial segregation and urban inequality that would later shape apartheid policies.

2. Downtown Johannesburg: The Economic Engine

Next, we cruised into Downtown Joburg, the city’s original commercial heart. Once the epicenter of South Africa’s gold economy, these streets are a mix of historical banks, bustling taxi ranks, and art deco buildings. Over time, urban sprawl and white flight during apartheid pushed businesses and affluent communities to the northern suburbs, leaving downtown in decay. But today, urban regeneration efforts are slowly bringing it back, with creative entrepreneurs reclaiming abandoned buildings and injecting life back into the inner city. The Urban Dualism is apparent where decaying infrastructure coexists with entrepreneurial vibrancy. The area remains densely populated, with over 15,000 people/km², largely comprising internal migrants and foreign nationals (especially from Zimbabwe, Malawi, and Mozambique), many occupying hijacked or under-regulated buildings. Transition City vibes. 

Once an elite white neighbourhood during apartheid, Hillbrow is now one of Johannesburg’s most densely populated areas (over 68,000 people/km²), known for high-rise decay, transnational migrant communities, and complex informal economies. Hillbrow illustrates “territorial stigmatization”, where certain districts are institutionally marginalized, reducing public investment and reinforcing cycles of poverty. 

The Hillbrow "Golden Age" (1930s-1970s) Establishment 

Hillbrow emerged as a desirable, high-density residential area for Johannesburg's white, often immigrant, population. It was a cosmopolitan hub with a vibrant social scene, cafés, and a prominent Jewish community. 

Ponte City's Birth (1975)

The pinnacle of this era was the completion of Ponte City Apartments. Architects Mannie Feldman, Manfred Hermer, and Rodney Grosskopff designed the unique cylindrical skyscraper. Its distinctive "toilet roll" shape was a direct response to a local regulation that required windows for light and ventilation in every kitchen and bathroom. This design created a hollow, open central void to serve this purpose. The name "Ponte" is Latin for "bridge," symbolizing a bridge between heaven and earth, reflecting the building's prestige at the time. 

Apartheid and "Dompas": Despite being a white-only area under the Group Areas Act, the reality was more complex. The "dompas," or passbook, was a hated symbol of apartheid, and for Black people, it served as a document that controlled their movement and presence in areas like Hillbrow. They could only be in the area for employment, which meant they were a visible part of the neighborhood during the day but were forced to leave at night. 

The Decline and "White Flight" (Late 1970s-1990s) 

Social Change and Investment Freeze (1980s): The beginning of the end for Hillbrow's golden age came as the government started to lose its grip on enforcing the Group Areas Act. Hillbrow became a "grey area" where people of different races began to live together. This led to a significant exodus of the white middle class, a phenomenon known as "white flight." Economic Collapse: In response to these changes, financial institutions and investors effectively "plugged out." Home loans, house sales, and investment in maintenance and civil services were all but banned, leading to a rapid decline in property values and the physical decay of the neighborhood. The government also banned all new investments in the area. Ponte's Plight: Ponte City, once a symbol of luxury, was severely impacted. As tenants left, building maintenance was neglected, and the central core of the building began to fill with several stories of trash and debris. The building became a microcosm of Hillbrow's urban decay. 

Post-Apartheid and the Plight of Modern Hillbrow (1990s-Present) 

Migration and Overcrowding : The end of apartheid brought a massive influx of migrants and refugees from other African countries, drawn by the promise of opportunity. This led to extreme overcrowding in the neglected buildings. The practice of "hijacked buildings" became common, where criminal gangs would take over properties and illegally collect rent. 

Financial Exploitation : A hijacked building with 200 residents paying an estimated ZAR 600 per month. This generates an estimated ZAR 120,000 per month in illicit income for the hijackers. In contrast, a well-managed building like Ponte offers a studio for ZAR 3000 and a two-bedroom apartment for ZAR 8500, reflecting the stark contrast between legal and hijacked housing. 

Extreme Living Conditions : The living conditions in hijacked buildings are often dire. The information details the reality: people paying ZAR 1000 for a balcony to sleep on, and beds are often rented out for multiple shifts a day, 8h or 12h. "Small" bedrooms are often shared by many people, "Full" bedroom means no sharing. These listings are found on makeshift bulletin "gumtree" where gums are used to paste leaflets. 

Crime and Social Ills : Hillbrow became synonymous with a high crime rate, prostitution, and drug abuse. The neighborhood is a major hub for drugs, with prices as low as ZAR 50 per packet of "nyaope", also called "whoonga", which is a mixture of heroin, rat poison, and weed. The phrase "swazilian weed" suggests the prevalence of cannabis from neighboring countries. Drug abuse is seen in corners as we walked the street. Often, a group of people would share needles to share the "effects" of the drugs without buying the drugs to save cost. Prostitution is rampant, with prices starting from as little as ZAR 50 for five minutes for unregulated services. The "Summit Club" started as a prestige club but became a stripclub, prostitution here was ZAR 400 for 5 minutes because the rental for the ladies were ZAR 500 a day, but regulations and checkups are mandatory here. 

The "Red Ants" and Urban Renewal : The government's response has been to use private eviction companies like the "Red Ants" to clear out hijacked buildings. While this is an attempt to restore law and order, their often brutal methods have been widely criticized for their impact on the poor and homeless. Ponte City's Second Life: Despite the surrounding challenges, Ponte City has undergone a remarkable transformation. Following years of being a slum, it was eventually refurbished by its owners. While a larger "New Ponte" project was canceled due to the 2008 financial crisis, the building was cleaned and re-purposed. It is now a privately managed apartment complex with security and a diverse mix of residents, offering a managed, secure, albeit expensive, living option in the inner city. Ponte Advertising: A testament to its renewal and a source of significant income, the iconic advertising space on top of the tower has been a consistent feature. The cost of this advertising has changed dramatically over time, from a reported ZAR 70,000 per month for Coke in the 2000s to ZAR 500,000 per month for Vodacom in 2025, reflecting the building's reclaimed prominence and desirability.

While it still was stigmatized for being dangerous, the locals took it on their own hands. The term "necklacing by Vimba" refers to a brutal form of mob justice and extrajudicial punishment, where a tire is placed around a victim's neck, doused in petrol, and set alight. Therefore, contrary to popular believe, it became one of the safest place to go where you know there is a solution to crime, and its communal effort.  

3. Newtown and Victoria Yards: Reviving Creativity

We then headed west to Newtown, the city’s cultural district. This was once a hub for industry and transport, but now it pulses with performance venues, jazz clubs, and museums like the Museum Africa and Market Theatre, once dubbed "The Theatre of the Struggle" for its anti-apartheid plays.

At Victoria Yards, a former industrial complex has been transformed into a creative ecosystem. Local artisans, farmers, artists, and small businesses collaborate in shared spaces, redefining regeneration not as gentrification but community-based revival.

4. Braamfontein: Learning, Living, and Leaking Between Worlds

Further north, Braamfontein sits between worlds — formal and informal, student and worker, corporate and streetwise. Home to the University of the Witwatersrand, the area buzzes with student life. Adjacent to it is Braampark, a cluster of office buildings and commercial services. The area caters more to corporate functions, with higher-income flows but limited residential identity. Yet, its proximity to transitional spaces (including Park Station and lower-income transport corridors) makes it a threshold zone — straddling formal and informal networks.

Here, we saw how migration from rural provinces and neighboring countries fuels an ever-changing urban demographic. Communities constantly evolve — kids in school uniforms pass by vendors selling amagwinya (vetkoek), and young migrants use art and hustle to carve out opportunity in the city.

5. Maboneng: Where the Streets Talk Back

Ah, Maboneng — the "Place of Light." Once a no-go zone, Maboneng is now Johannesburg’s arts-and-culture playground. Young South Africans, global nomads, and creative entrepreneurs have transformed this part of the city into a living gallery. Walls explode with street art, from politically charged murals to vibrant afro-futurist pieces. Maboneng’s appeal lies in its authenticity. You’re just as likely to stumble across a fashion pop-up as a poetry slam. It's become a canvas for reclaiming public space, where the youth take ownership of their narrative in post-apartheid South Africa. This is such a hipster enclave, where the street talk back, like Robert Florida's Creative Class Theory, meaning younger generation expresses their hardships through different mediums but as a result attracted economic growth with the right factors of Technology, Talent, and Tolerance. I came back in the night for Food Tour and Jazz Club

6. Soweto: The Soul of the Struggle

No visit to Johannesburg is complete without Soweto — a township forged by fire and resilience. Under apartheid, Black South Africans were forcibly relocated here, far from the city center, to serve as labor but remain segregated.

🏠 Tutu House and Mandela House

We visited Archbishop Desmond Tutu’s modest home and Nelson Mandela’s former residence on Vilakazi Street — the only street in the world that has housed two Nobel Peace Prize winners. Their legacies of peace, justice, and forgiveness are etched into the pavement here.

📚 The 1976 Uprising and the Power of Youth

Perhaps the most emotionally charged moment was learning about the 1976 Soweto Uprising, when thousands of schoolchildren protested the enforcement of Afrikaans (Difficult Language) in schools. Hector Pieterson, just 12 years old, was shot by police — and his photo became a global symbol of apartheid’s brutality. The Hector Pieterson Memorial and Museum stands today not just to mourn, but to inspire.

Housing Situation 

Johannesburg’s housing and income disparities reveal stark spatial inequality, where low-income residents are priced out of formal housing and pushed into informal settlements. In Johannesburg, we see average monthly income from ZAR 2,500 to 5,000 in areas like Hillbrow and Soweto, or ZAR 4,000 to 6,000 in Downtown depending on the industry, thus access to decent housing remains limited as it would cost ZAR 900,000 for a 900 sqft apartment in the CBD. Therefore they are often pushed to the informal settlements options — ZAR 5,000 to 25,000 for a shack — but lack access to basic services and legal protection. Gentrified districts like Maboneng or semi-formal hubs like Braamfontein therefore fetches a better living opportunity of ZAR 6,000 - 8,000 a month, but not living in there as the apartments go for ZAR 1.5mil. From collectively self-managing hijacked buildings in the inner city, to erecting shacks on contested land, to transforming public walls into political canvases through street art, Johannesburg’s urban poor reclaim agency through everyday acts of defiance and resilience, what James Scott termed as "Weapon of the Weak" - subtle forms of resistance that reclaim agency in the absence of formal power.

7. Local Flavors: A Taste of the Land

To end the day, we feasted like locals. The food was bold, earthy, and deeply rooted in tradition:

Pap: A staple maize porridge, similar to polenta. Its name comes from the Dutch word for porridge — a colonial culinary legacy, now wholly African in identity.

Cow Head and Cow Lung: Known as smiley and mala mogodu, these are delicacies found in township shisanyamas (braai stalls). Eating nose-to-tail is both a tradition of respect and sustainability.

Bobotie: A Cape Malay classic — curried minced meat baked with an egg custard topping. A perfect metaphor for South Africa’s layered heritage — spicy, unexpected, and deeply comforting.

Shisa Nyama : Which literally means burnt meat in Zulu, is the term used in townships to describe where people make and serve the braais. Usually Shisa Nyama comes with alcohol, loud music and loads of braaied meat, usually fatty cuts to prevent it from drying out. I got one with Boerewors, which is the local sausage made up of spiced coarsely ground beef and pork and chakalaka - a spicy tomato, carrot and bean relish.

Conclusion: Johannesburg is a Story Still Being Written

From colonial forts to township murals, Johannesburg is not just a city — it’s a living archive. It holds the weight of trauma, the scars of segregation, and the rebellious spirit of youth. Yet it also offers something more powerful: the will to rewrite its story, on walls, in songs, and through food. As I rode back through the city’s cracked streets and high-rise hopes, I realized: Johannesburg doesn’t want to be pretty. It wants to be real. And that is what makes it unforgettable.

The Singapore General Election has concluded, and many people are expressing vocal displeasure regarding the expected results. Here are my thoughts, coming from a naturalized citizen with quite a fair bit of traveling experience to other states, based on my interaction with the locals of the area, without doing much fact check but just a general sense of the situation : 

COMPARISON OF HOUSING SITUATION OF SELECTED CITIES 

Hong Kong Housing Situation : 

> Land Scarcity by Design : Only 7% of Hong Kong’s 1,100 km² land is developed into housing, despite plenty of undeveloped or underutilized land, the government controls land scarcity, because up to 50% of HK government revenue depends on land sales, leases, and related taxes. Politically, this follows a statist capitalist model: the state behaves like a corporate landlord, monopolizing land to extract maximum rent from private enterprise.

> Hyper-Capitalism and Inequality : Median wage in Hong Kong is around HKD $19,000/month (~USD $2,400), but property prices are wildly disproportionate, to purchase a modest 300 sqft unit, it costs HKD $3 million (~USD $380,000), renting even a basic private unit would cost HKD $8,000–$10,000/month, about half of an average worker’s salary, trapping many in a rent burden cycle (where >30% of income is spent on housing). This reflects "Global City Squeeze", where global capital inflates costs without matching local wage growth.

> Urban Solutions to the Housing Crisis : Rise of the Cage Homes, to afford a living space, many private home owners sublet their housing space by dividing into smaller compartments, some units contains up to five persons into 100 sqft "Cage Homes", caged in order to lock their personal belongings since your roommate are strangers, and yet this is still at about HKD $2,000/month.This is a legal arrangement as long as a living space is above 20 sqft. Similarly, a family may rent a full unit to be divided by wooden or cardboard divders thus the term Coffin Homes, where they eat, sleep, hang laundry, children studying, all in one of that 300 sqft unit. This loophole is a state-managed informal sector: the government tolerates micro-or-nano-apartments to reduce visible homelessness while avoiding expensive systemic reforms. As I visit the famous Yick Cheong Building ("Monster Building", where 10,000 people squeezed into aprroximately 15,000 square metres space, showcase extreme urban density and the phenomenon of "Dead Person Cosmetics" — cheap, quick renovation of crumbling buildings to resell or rent for profit. Since this is privatised, it is impossible to get residents to chip in for renovations and upgrades so the space is usually run down and in bad condition. Everyone wants to sell for profit, and many temporary tenants that dont care about conditions. Alot of singles use this for temporary houses. Apart from these solutions, some owners would do "Time Share", where spaces are fragmented into micro-dorms and hostel beds, for temporary residents or domestic workers. 

> Hidden Poverty : Officially, 25% of Hong Kong’s population lives under the poverty line, but you rarely see visible slums on streets due to government strategies like subdivided flats and rooftop settlements therefore "Rooftop Slums". This "invisible poverty" is a hallmark of neoliberal urban governance: the city prioritizes external image (global finance hub) over internal social welfare.

> Public Housing : Public Rental Housing is about half the private market price and offers three times more living space, however, only about 30% of Hong Kong residents live in public housing as the waiting times average 5 – 6 years. 

Seoul Housing Situation : 

> South Korea, another Asian Tiger Economy, has a different approach to housing. having 26 million population in the Greater Seoul Metropolitan Area of 600 square kilometres, the Korean government started building apartment blocks called apateu, 아파트.  Unique to Korea, "cheonse" is a rental model where tenants deposit a lump sum (50–80% of property value) instead of monthly rent. Landlords invest this deposit to earn returns. After 2 years, they return the deposit, which is KRW 450 – 700 million (USD $300–500K). 

> In response to severe affordability issues, the government implemented Price Caps on new apartments. This results in a shrinking housing supply because of the reduced incentive for Private Developers to build or even to maintain houses. Therefore those that got the "Lottery" of a new apateu would generally resale for much higher value therefore exacerbating disparity. Over time, demand outpaces supply, ironically raising prices elsewhere, or delaying the entry of young people into homeownership, therefore only half of the population gets home ownership. 

> An average home price of 1,000 square feet will cost about KRW900 million (USD$650,000), in comaprison to the average monthly salary of KRW3.5 million (USD$2,500), with a National Tax of 15% - 24% and an additional of 10% fixed Income Tax. 

Munich Housing Situation : 

> Munich, a popular destination and terms one of the most livable cities in Germany, of 1.5 million population in the 300 sqaure kilometres space, has 30% non locals, and 30% students too. It has an average monthly income of Euro $6,000, and a cost of Euro $800,000 for a 1,000 square feet apartments. Ownership is at 25% due to the high cost of housing prices, which drives 600,000 homelessness, in which half are supported by public services. Tax wise, this is too complicated for me to comprehend due to the different set of laws for many individualised criteria, but effective tax is at about 30%. 

> Wallerstein Core-Periphery logic explains Munich’s magnetic pull: As a “core city” in the global capitalist system, Munich extracts labor, capital, and talent from semi-peripheral regions (e.g., Eastern Europe, East Germany). Accumulation by Dispossession is visible when inner-city properties are bought by global investors; social housing stock is privatized or underfunded; and lower-income renters are displaced to peripheries. Ecological Differentiation therefore exist amongst the neighbourhoods. 

> Resistance to building new affordable housing is often driven by NIMBYism (Not In My Backyard) from existing homeowners. Therefore local policymakers cater to voting homeowners rather than non-owning renters, creating a democratic deadlock, meaning the priority is always on the "haves" and the "have-nots" are completely ignored. 

> Munich seems to me like a neoliberal city in a social democracy, caught between ideals and capital. It is a tech-focused global city competing for talent, but failing to house its essential workers.

Los Angeles Housing Situation : 

> Hollywood, Pop Culture, Palm Trees and Blue Skies, are the image of LA. LA city itself has about 4 million population in the 1,300 square kilometres space. With monthly average salary of USD$6000, and effective tax of 30%, houses are not as scarce as many Asian cities. With USD$1 million, you would expect a 2,000 to 3,000 square feet bungalows, and depending on the zones, the 50% of the city rents 1,000 square feet apartments at about USD $3,000 - USD $4,000. 

> I've learnt on my trip that large part of government revenue is actually Oil, then is Shipping and Aerospace, then Tourism and Entertainment, therefore Property, is not as significant (15%-ish). 

> There are unique laws to the city for example Zoning Laws (single-family zoning in 70% of LA). There are two main types of residential zones in Los Angeles: single-family zones and multi-family zones. In single-family zones, you can only build one house on the lot, no matter how big the lot is. Therefore most ownerships are on these Single Family Zoning, leaving the 30% of the land for Multi Family Zones where you can build apartments for rent. This translate to exlusive zones for different social stratification, becoming a "Polycentric Model" with multiple “cores” (e.g., Downtown, Westwood, Culver City). Los Angeles housing districts therefore reinforce racial and class hierarchies. 

> LA is a “global city”, attracting foreign investment (especially Chinese, Korean, and Gulf capital) in downtown condos and real estate. These investments often sit empty or drive speculation—unproductive assets create real-world displacement. 

> With more than 75,000 homeless, LA has the largest unsheltered population in the U.S, mostly at Skidrow. Efforts to combat homelessness include Inside Safe Program to transition individuals from encampments into interim housing, and Permanent Housing Placements to transition from interim housing to permanent housing, but this effort is slow as other states are "dumping" their homelessness into LA due to its favourable climate. Still, during winter, we saw the population burnign random items to keep warm in Skidrow. 

Sydney Housing Situation : 

> Greater Sydney spans 12,400 square kilometers for its 5.5 million population. It's average monthly income is at AUD$9000, in comparison to AUD1.2 million for a 2,500 square feet apartments, thus a 65% home ownership rate. 

> Sydney's urban landscape exhibits spatial stratification, with affluent populations concentrated in inner-city and coastal suburbs, while lower-income groups are increasingly pushed to peripheral areas. This pattern reflects broader ecological models where socio-economic status influences residential location and access to amenities.

> The liberalization of Australia's economy and the emphasis on market-driven policies have influenced urban development in Sydney. Deregulation and incentives for private developers have led to a surge in high-density housing projects, often prioritizing profitability over affordability and community needs.

> Most of the population lives 1.0 hour drive / metro / bus away from the CBD (Central Business District). Majority of the occupation centres around Healthcare, Tech, and Finances. There are high demand for Civil Engineers as their Minimum Wage model 

> Though Minimum Wage of AUD$25 per hour, most of the casual labour and F&B are shunned due to its low guaranteed hours of labour, thus income insecurity and limited potential for career growth. Therefore demand for Civil Engineers and Technical Trades such as Plumbing, Electrician and Constructions are higher in demand as the ageing population sees many seniors going into retirement. The gentrification on the areas around CBD also drives demand for these jobs. Sydney started apartment projects recently to prepare for global inbound migration. 

> Youths ages 16yo onwards for students and 22yo onwards for Job Seekers could seek Youth Allowance where the Sydney government provides about AUD$1,500 a month for education, apprenticeship, entry level work or training. To ease on Parental Burdens, many youths declare "Homelessness" status in order to enjoy access to Transitional Housing, shelters, or programs like Foyer Foundation for youth pursuing education. Homelessness services provide food vouchers, healthcare, transport cards, etc too. 

> Thus the viewpoint on “Homelessness” is not always about sleeping rough. It can be a fluid, constructed identity leveraged to access state resources — especially if you're couch-surfing, in unsafe housing, or institutionally estranged. Australia’s welfare model offers a modest safety net, but it's not luxurious. Most youth on Youth Allowance still struggle to afford rent, especially in Sydney. However, the symbolic security of the welfare state can make declaring homelessness less frightening than family dysfunction or precarity. Youth asserting their autonomy to live, learn, and be housed within the city is a claim to urban citizenship — even if they’re excluded from formal housing markets. This may sound like a reasonable solution, but these “youth gaming the system" would pressure poitician to reevaluate the benefits and supports in order to apease the Working Class Adults and the Elites where a large portio of their Taxes are to support these Youths. 

Then comes to our Nation's Singapore's Housing Strategy, in my opinion, is a unique solution that divides the responsibility between Government, Community and Individuals. It is not entirely a Welfare system (we do not need to as a status of port city) and not entirely Capitalistic either. 

Singapore - Housing Situation :

> Over 80% of Singaporeans live in HDB flats; 90% of households own their homes. CPF (Central Provident Fund) is used for housing, making homeownership accessible without needing liquid cash upfront. Public housing is heavily subsidized for first-time buyers, and ethnic quotas (Ethnic Integration Policy) promote racial harmony, avoiding ghettos and racial enclaves. The HDB is not for profit—it is part of a social policy, not a market. 

> One may argue on the rising cost of home ownership. This is true, but looking at the policies and how it fare against the rising median income, I feel its proportionate. The system achieved consistently, a Mortgage Servicing Ratio (MSR) of around 30% of household income. In 1980s when our Median Household Income is about SGD $1000, our monthly installment was SGD $300. In 2000s, it's $4,000 against $1,200. In 2020s, it's SGD$10,000 against $3,000. This is an estimate of a 4-room HDB across the years. Again, we encourage pro-family units to buy large and downsize on retirement, and with consideration of Grants such as EHG and Proximity Grants, this value may drop, understand it is a blindspot for some lifestyle chocies of non-procreation, but that's not a National Direction. Realistically, the installment period do extends, it is at approximately 20 years today as compared to 10 or 15 years in the past. 

> Land is scarce; the 99 years leasehold reflects the state’s view that housing is a right, not a wealth-building instrument. En bloc redevelopment allows renewal of aging estates and ensures continuous optimization of land use. This allows continuous renewal or urban spaces to keep up with new standards of facilities. The fear of decreating value to 0 for older estate persists, but in history, none of this had happened, most are put up for SERS, therefore sold back to governemnt with reasonable compensation based on buying price. Again, HDB is not for profit.

> Decentralized Urban Planning : Heartland Model : Based on the Concept Plan (1971, 1991, 2001) and the Master Plan, Singapore’s model ensures access to work, play, live and learn within towns (e.g., Tampines, Jurong, Punggol). Each HDB town has its own regional center, polyclinic, schools, malls, transport hub. This reduces congestion, fosters local community identity, and flattens class divides in space. This breaks away from Concentric Circles, thus there would be no stark "poor" or "elite" zones in residential areas (on exception on Private Foreign-Dominated Condominiums).

> If we look at housing in Singapore as a means for shelter for all, Singapore excels. But if you look at housing as a means for wealth acculumation or financial freedom, then Singapore housing system is not designed for this purpose, though many many many citizens try to game this by acquiring condominiums and renting for passive income or the buying and selling of HDB in speculation of potential area development.

> Singapore’s system prioritizes social cohesion, basic shelter security, and responsible state planning over short-term profits. It may not be emotionally or aesthetically ideal for everyone, but it does deliver on its promise: no one is left homeless, and most are not rent-dependent. We are all slaves to housing, globally. The difference is that in Singapore, you’re a slave to a dignified system, not to an unpredictable market or a landlord. 

Summary

Singapore’s Unique Governance Model : A Hybrid State Built on Pragmatism, Planning, and Purpose

(Note, this is purely based on my own personal opinion as a Singapore citizen having some background in Sociology and Political Science, should NOT be taken as absolute truth, fact checking is not done)

Since its independence in 1965, Singapore has charted a governance path that defies traditional political categorization. Officially a Republic, Singapore’s political and social architecture is a hybrid blend—melding elements from dictatorship, socialism, capitalism, democracy, communism, and military sovereignty, grounded firmly in pragmatic survival rather than ideological purity. This governance philosophy has been critical for Singapore’s resilience as a city-state with no natural resources, a small population, and constant external vulnerabilities.

1. The Republic Structure: Elections with Guardrails

At its core, Singapore is a Republic, where sovereignty resides with the people, exercised through regular elections and rule of law. Singapore’s political architecture reflects classical Sovereignty Theory—where supreme authority is vested in the state and exercised through institutions. Yet Singapore departs from pure Liberal Democracy: elections are free, but guarded by eligibility criteria for candidates to ensure only individuals of proven competence can contest top roles such as Ministers or President. This "meritocratic democracy with guardrails" ensures national leadership maintains global credibility and governing capacity, avoiding populist swings that have destabilized many democracies elsewhere. This model recognizes the Constructivist idea that political legitimacy is socially constructed — not simply through elections but through the perception of capacity, integrity, and service. While critics highlight "dictatorship tendencies" due to PAP's unbroken rule since 1965, Singapore’s long-term stability enabled Realist strategic planning such as the 1972 Concept Plan — ensuring the city-state could outlast regional turmoil, from Cold War threats to modern-day geopolitical shifts. Where many nations plan for election cycles, Singapore plans for generations.

2. The Socialist Elements: Security Through the CPF System

Singapore incorporates elements of socialism through the Central Provident Fund (CPF) — a mandatory savings system that secures housing, healthcare, and retirement needs for all citizens. Instead of welfare dependence, Singapore builds self-reliance through forced but personalized savings mechanisms. Citizens are shielded from destitution not by open-ended welfare transfers but by a structured and sustainable framework that promotes dignity and personal responsibility. This mirrors the Asian Developmental State (ADS) model, where social protections are not about handouts but about enabling productive citizenship — thereby reinforcing the social contract while avoiding fiscal unsustainability.

3. The Capitalist Core: Free Market Efficiency with State Macro-Intervention

Singapore remains one of the world’s freest economies (Liberalist) — boasting competitive markets, strong entrepreneurship, and open global trade. Yet, unlike laissez-faire capitalism, the state intervenes strategically at macro levels to redistribute wealth, regulate monopolies, and guide economic transformations. Urban Ecology Theory explains how Singapore nurtures high-density, globally connected hubs (e.g., CBD, Jurong) while managing urban competition and clustering, avoiding uncontrolled sprawl and fragmentation. From industrialization to biotechnology to fintech, Singapore’s economy is shaped by calibrated state intervention aimed at national strategic interests while allowing market forces to operate efficiently. This delicate dance between free-market dynamism and guided steering is central to Singapore’s success. Intervention comes in forms of : Correct inequality (e.g., Workfare), Maintain competitiveness (e.g., Industry Transformation Maps), and Build future industries (e.g., Smart Nation initiatives). In this, Singapore also aligns with Flying Geese Theory—not leading unilaterally but moving in formation with ASEAN and regional economies, adapting dynamically as global shifts occur.

4. Democratic Processes with Rational Control

Singapore exhibits Constructivist Realism in how it manages democracy: it holds regular elections but ensures that political participation preserves national strategic interests, rather than being a playground for populist cycles. Rather than populism, Singapore seeks leaders with policy foresight, ethical grounding, and national resilience. This guards against what Globalization Theory shows elsewhere: the rapid disillusionment and instability that come when populism overruns sound governance. In this model, democracy is not merely the right to choose anyone — but the responsibility to protect national coherence, especially for a small state facing constant external pressures (Neorealism).

5. Communist Echoes : Land Ownership and Urban Management

Singapore’s 90% state ownership of land resembles a communist model, but for practical, not ideological reasons. State land control enables urban revitalization, public housing equity, and prevention of generational land hoarding, critical in a nation where land is finite. Without such control, land use would fossilize around wealth elites—an unacceptable risk for a country with pressing housing, infrastructural, and economic needs. From an Urban Ecology perspective, this allows Singapore to regenerate urban spaces dynamically, maintaining environmental resilience and economic vibrancy—critical for a secondary nation-state without limited land, and could not reclaim any further in width (730sqkm), height (300m) nor depth (150m). 

6. Military Strength and Diplomatic Relevance

Singapore’s strong military (Total Defence doctrine) and shrewd diplomacy align with Realist theories about small-state survival. Understanding its geopolitical smallness, Singapore invests heavily in military deterrence (15%) through National Service and a well-equipped Singapore Armed Forces (SAF). Diplomatically, Singapore pursues neutral, multilateral engagement, maintaining good relations across rival powers — a rare feat today. This "value proposition diplomacy" ensures Singapore remains indispensable, rather than disposable, in global power calculations (US, China, ASEAN, EU).

7. The Asian Developmental State 

Singapore exhibits the hallmarks of an Asian Developmental State (ADS), rejecting both Export-Oriented Industrialization (EOI) dependency and Import Substitution Industrialization (ISI) inwardness. Neither fully subscribing to free-market fundamentalism (Washington Consensus) nor state-socialist isolation, Singapore charts its own middle path — building capabilities systematically while ensuring fiscal prudence, openness, and strategic autonomy. This state-engineered modernization shows how institutional capacity, not market forces alone, drives long-term national success. In terms of Wallerstein's Globalisation, it operates as a semi-core city within the global capitalist system — intermediating trade, finance, and innovation flows between advanced economies and developing regions. Regional talent integration through ASEAN partnerships, EP schemes, and cross-border investments ensures Singapore remains vital in the shifting global network. Yet Singapore also guards against hyper-globalization risks by maintaining Financial Conservatism (50% of Returns of Investments), Domestic Resilience and Strategic Autonomy.

8. Urban Sociology Insights: Decentralization and Integration

In urban planning, Singapore avoids the classical "concentric model" seen in many global cities where wealth concentrates centrally. Instead, heartlands like Tampines, Woodlands, Jurong East were developed as decentralized regional hubs, distributing jobs, services, and amenities evenly across the island. HDB racial quotas, 3-Generational Estates, Community Centres, estate WhatsApp groups, and ethnic festivals enforce integration, sharing spaces and resources, nurturing a shared national identity rather than allowing urban segregation. This aligns with Constructivist Sociology : nationhood and solidarity are not natural—they are constructed and reinforced through daily practice and urban space design. Due to these macro-level planning, we are the 6th Blue Zone in the world too. 

9. Career Progression: Capitalist Meritocracy 

Career structures in Singapore are built upon a philosophy of capitalist meritocracy, where continuous self-improvement, competition, and performance-based advancement are not merely ideals but institutionalized norms. This system reflects a conscious national design: survival of the fittest is not left to chance but systematically cultivated through educational pathways, workforce reskilling initiatives, and societal expectations. From early education, the system emphasizes achievement, discipline, and effort into the Streaming and differentiated Education Tracks (e.g., subject-based banding, IP, DSA), therefore these are tailored opportunities based on ability and interests. Then, we move on to continuous adult learning frameworks like SkillsFuture ensure that workers, regardless of age, must remain adaptive. We practice Merit-Based promotion schemes in Civil Service and Corporate sectors reward quantifiable competence, not just seniority or patronage. In the Innovation sector, we nurtured Entrepreneurship ecosystems (like Startup SG, Enterprise Singapore, one-north BizPark) to recognise merit not only in employment but in risk-taking and innovation. Institutions and employers alike prioritize measurable excellence, future potential, and adaptability over fixed credentials or static entitlement. Without a system that ruthlessly rewards excellence and punishes complacency, Singapore would rapidly fall behind in global relevance, innovation, and growth. Thus, capitalist meritocracy is not a luxury for Singapore — it is a strategic imperative deeply embedded into national consciousness. In line with Constructivist Sociology, Singapore's national ideology constructs individual responsibility as a civic duty that Success or Failure is Personalized; and future is Self-Authored, within a system that removes many structural barriers but offers no unconditional safety nets for underperformance. 

10. Evaluating against Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

Physiological : affordable food, water, transport, cost of living

Safety : public security, job stability, healthcare, international military defence

Belonging : strong community networks

Esteem : career advancement, achievements

Self-Actualization : opportunities in arts, innovation, entrepreneurship

This creates a social mobility engine—allowing those who strive and innovate to ascend, while maintaining social security nets for those in need.

 A Decade of Me, Myself, and I : 

This year, on my big 30, or 29+1 as I want it to, would do a different kind of review, to go beyond the year, but to the decade. I compiled my life in 10 different themes below. If there’s one thing this decade has taught me, it’s that life is both messy and magical. It’s a paradox of growth and setbacks, of love and loss, of certainty and doubt. And through it all, I’ve come to realize that the journey matters more than the destination. Here’s to the next chapter, where the lessons continue and the story unfolds. Cheers to the beautiful chaos of being human. 🥂

1. Identity & Self-Acceptance

"The privilege of a lifetime is to become who you truly are." – Carl Jung

Then : Like most, I was searching for “me,” only to realize I didn’t even know what that meant. Identity felt like something fixed, something I was supposed to find and stick with. Fitting in meant survival, and being different felt risky. Ive explored Personality, Expression of Self, Cooley Looking Glass, Goffman Dramaturgical Self, Eastern Philophy of Self such as Confucianism, Taoism, Buddhism and Hinduism. 

Now : Identity is no longer a destination; it’s a journey. It’s fluid, shaped by experiences, relationships, and even failures. I’ve learned that it’s okay to shed old identities to make space for new ones. Who I was at 20 isn’t who I am at 30, and that’s how it should be. Identity isn’t a box to check; it’s a canvas. Keep painting, and don’t be afraid to mix new colors into the picture. but one thing for sure, I would love to appear to every single individuals around me, as a singular congruent version of myself, instead of a jigsaw puzzle at my end of life. 

2. Family Dynamics

"Family is not an important thing. It’s everything." – Michael J. Fox

Then : Family was a mix of comfort and chaos. I yearned for an idealized version of family — one that didn’t exist. The generational gap often felt like a canyon I couldn’t cross. I used to also lament the fact that I'm not a typical "Rich Indonesian Chinese Kid", and let's just say my family didnt have a good track record of wise financial decisions. Then songs like "漂向北方" and other literature made me realise the courage of migration and I truly admired that. It is never easy to let go of familiarity to be on a foreign land, to rebuilt life itself. And I'm happy, in their own ways, they have shown growth in various ways including digital, and displayed their never waivering support for me. 

Now : I’ve come to see family as both my grounding and my challenge. I’ve learned to set boundaries while appreciating the love and sacrifices my family has made. It’s about meeting them where they are, not where I wish they’d be. Family isn’t perfect, but it’s home. Balance gratitude with boundaries, and strive for understanding over judgment. I remember the time I was in Hong Kong and on my playlist was "We Are One". As you go through life you'll see, there is so much that we don't understand, And the only thing we know, is things don't always go the way we planned, But you'll see every day that we'll never turn away, When it seems all your dreams come undone, We will stand by your side, Filled with hope and filled with pride, We are more than we are,

We are One.

3. Friendship & Connection

"In the sweetness of friendship let there be laughter, and sharing of pleasures. For in the dew of little things the heart finds its morning and is refreshed." – Kahlil Gibran

Then : Friendship felt like a lifeline. I wanted to hold on to every bond, to keep every laugh and every shared memory alive forever. I wanted friendships that do everything together, share the same interests together, but I realised that's impossible, even for myself. But I also experienced the heartbreak of drifting apart, realizing not all friendships were built to last. And due to life trajectory, some friendships do drift apart, and it's alright. It takes mutual respect, mutual effort, to make it work. This would also mean, there's such thing as "Low Maintanence Friends", someone who celebrates your milestone, and remembers every part of you, even if you don't have to meet often. 

Now : Friendship is no longer about quantity but quality. I’ve come to appreciate the ebb and flow of relationships—some friends are seasonal, some situational, and a few become soul-deep connections. Effort and reciprocity are my markers now. A true friend doesn’t just share your joy without judgement and jealousy but also shows up in your storms initiated and sincere. Cherish those who stand by you, not just when it’s convenient but when it’s hard. Be the friend you’d want to have. Learnt this through many media too, movie films, theatre plays, fictional and non-fictional stories. 

4. Career & Purpose

"Choose a job you love, and you will never have to work a day in your life." – Confucius

Then : Work was a chore — a way to earn, to survive, to “be productive.” It felt transactional, and often, I wasn’t sure if what I was doing even mattered. Coupled with Sociology of Work, the functional perspectives and conflict perspectives of work, power stuggles, navigating office politics, facades, all these were daunting to me. 

Now : Career has taken on a deeper meaning. It’s become a platform to create, to impact, and to leave a mark. While titles and paychecks matter to some extent, what drives me now is alignment: Does this work align with my values? Am I growing? Am I contributing meaningfully? I hope my Work isn’t just about making a living; it’s about creating a life. Find meaning in what I do, or at least grasp that chance, that foothold, to learn about another world Ive never knew. I hope that my role as an Singapore Inbound Tourist Guide, could inspire travellers on the works of the nation, could educate the past present and future of the nation to travellers in a fresh perspectives beyond the tourism marketing materials, could guide travellers on the way they immerse themselve in the culture of every other destination for their lifetime. One traveller at a time, one local at a time, slow and steady. 

5. Growth Through Failure

"I have not failed. I've just found 10,000 ways that won't work." – Thomas Edison

Then : Every failure felt like a verdict. Whether it was a failed test, a poor performance, or a harsh critique, it was hard not to take it personally. I saw failure as the end of the road. Adversity felt like punishment. Life’s tough times often left me questioning, “Why me?” I resisted the storms, wishing they’d pass faster.

Now : Failure is my best teacher. Each stumble brought a lesson - humility, resilience, or just the fact that life goes on, it is not a reflection of your worth. It’s through failing that I’ve built the courage to try, to risk, and to keep going. Every decision I've made, I shall make with no regrets, for the good, the bad, the ugly, it's part of me. I’ve learned to bend like the willow, to find strength in flexibility and grit in vulnerability. The scars you carry are proof of your strength.

6. Perspective on Happiness

"Happiness is not a goal; it is a by-product." – Eleanor Roosevelt

Then : Happiness was a finish line — something to chase through milestones, achievements, and big moments. I thought it was a destination, and I felt lost when I couldn’t find it. I delved into pursuit of happiness, spiritually and materialistically, and fell into Existentialism and Nihilsm. So the chase often left me feeling empty. When the goals were achieved, the happiness I expected would linger often faded quickly. And when I fell short, I felt lost, as though the happiness I had invested so much energy in pursuing was slipping further away. This spiraled into deeper existential questions: What’s the point of happiness if it’s so elusive? Why even try if nothing truly satisfies? I have developed a fear of being happy, Cherophobia, that at that point of extreme happiness from biological reactions, the kind where tears of joy and drowned by the joyous environment, I would have an unexplanable moment of fear that something bad is coming because what goes up much come down. Then I recognised my Maslow and Baxter's Dialectics Theory of Needs. My pursuit of happiness wasn't wrong—it was misdirected. I realized I had been focusing too much on external outcomes, expecting them to give me something they never could : Internal Peace.

Now : Happiness is fleeting, like fireflies on a summer night. It’s found in the smallest moments: a warm cup of coffee, a heartfelt conversation, or even just a deep breath after a long day. And I’ve realized that happiness isn’t possible without its counterpart—sadness. The lows give the highs their meaning. Don’t chase happiness; cultivate it. It lives in the present, not in some far-off “someday.” Most importantly, I’ve realized that happiness isn’t just about external circumstances; it’s about being at peace with myself. It’s about knowing that my decisions align with my values, that I’m pursuing goals that truly matter to me, and that my definition of success isn’t dictated by societal expectations but by what brings me fulfillment. In the end, Happiness isn’t about having it all but about appreciating what you have while continuing to grow.

7. Mentorship and Guidance 

"Our deepest fear is not that we are inadequate. Our deepest fear is that we are powerful beyond measure. It is our light, not our darkness, that most frightens us." - Marianne Williamson

Then : Being Guided. My journey has been illuminated by the wisdom and guidance of incredible mentors, each teaching me lessons that often only made sense in hindsight. Whether it was Ling Kok Keng's philosophy of life, of balance, of beign human; or Samy Rajoo's relentless generosity and global perspectives; or my NS officers' ability to lead with empathy; or Industry Giants, Wei and TY and even Robin Loh, about business and tourism; or passer-by who I met once or twice which graciously shared their wisdom of their definition of successes; these mentors saw something in me even when I doubted myself. They didn’t just teach me skills or knowledge; they nurtured me into becoming a better version of myself. They taught me to appreciate the forest, not just the tree. They guided me to balance patience with progress and to find growth even in setbacks. Above all, they showed me that mentorship is about trust, care, and the power of seeing potential in others. I feel like Im blessed in the era where resources are plenty and within my reach, that differentiates the endless possibilies in this era which the previous could not indulge in. 

Now : I’ve come to realize that the greatest way to honor my mentors is to pay it forward. Whether it’s guiding the next generation and beyond, I try to embody the same patience, empathy, and vision that shaped me. I’ve learned to balance being a cheerleader and a tough coach, helping others rise to their potential while holding space for their growth. I'm truly blessed to be deemed trustworthy by their parents too, which, given the rebel that I am and my many flaws, could have otherwise been far from the case. Through these, I’ve learned even more about myself too, there's always a reciprocacy in this dynamic. Just as my mentors believed in me when I doubted, I strive to do the same for others. It’s a ripple effect—one that I hope continues long after me.

8. Legacy & Contribution

"What we do for ourselves dies with us. What we do for others and the world remains and is immortal." – Albert Pine

Then : Legacy wasn’t a concept I thought about often. Life, as I saw it, was about surviving, fulfilling immediate responsibilities, and navigating through the daily grind. Contribution felt like something distant—something reserved for the extraordinary, the geniuses, the leaders, the visionaries. I thought you had to create groundbreaking innovations or lead massive movements to leave a mark on the world. In a way, I had internalized the idea that legacy was for "important" people, not someone like me who was just trying to figure things out. Helping others was a good thing, sure, but I didn’t see how small acts of kindness or generosity could amount to anything significant in the grand scheme of things. Legacy, to me, seemed tied to fame or monumental achievements.

Now : Over time, I’ve come to understand that legacy isn’t about grand gestures or having your name etched in history books—it’s about the quiet, meaningful moments that ripple outward in ways we may never fully grasp. Inspired by Tuesdays with Morrie, I’ve realized that the most profound legacies often come from the simplest acts: a kind word that lifts someone’s spirit, a shared moment of laughter that becomes a cherished memory, or the time spent mentoring and guiding someone who needed it. Legacy, for me, is about the lives we touch and the difference we make in our immediate circles. I don’t need to change the entire world to leave a legacy; changing one person’s world is enough. Whether it’s through mentoring a friend, being there for a family member, or uplifting someone struggling with their self-belief, every small act contributes to a larger picture. This shift in perspective has been humbling and liberating. I no longer measure my worth by the scale of my contributions but by their depth and sincerity. A legacy isn’t necessarily about being remembered but about the positive ripples we leave behind—ripples that others may pass on, creating a chain of goodness far beyond what we could ever imagine. 

In Tuesdays with Morrie, Morrie Schwartz reminds us that life is not about accumulating wealth or accolades but about love, connection, and meaning. He says, “The way you get meaning into your life is to devote yourself to loving others, devote yourself to your community around you, and devote yourself to creating something that gives you purpose and meaning.” That wisdom has profoundly shaped my understanding of legacy. It’s not about how many people know your name; it’s about how many lives you’ve touched in ways that truly matter. It’s about the seeds you plant—seeds of kindness, understanding, and inspiration—that may grow long after you’re gone. "And I will live to carry Your compassion, To love a world that's broken, To be Your hands and feet. And I will give with the life that I've been given, And go beyond religion, To see the world be changed." 

9. The Evolving Worldview

"The mind, once stretched by a new idea, never returns to its original dimensions." – Ralph Waldo Emerson

Then : I saw the world in black and white, defined by binaries — right or wrong, success or failure, good or bad. I saw life as a "For Dummies" book, a clear path. It was an oversimplified framework that made navigating life feel safe, as though there was always a clear answer or a correct path. There was a comfort in absolutes, in the notion that following certain "rules" would lead to predictable outcomes. It was the same mindset that made me believe that intelligence was static, that people couldn’t change, and that life was either about winning or losing. But this approach had its limitations. It left little room for understanding others’ perspectives or the layered complexity of situations. I often felt frustrated when life didn’t fit neatly into the boxes I had created. I sought clarity in a world that was inherently chaotic, and I felt overwhelmed when the answers weren’t readily apparent.

Now : The world, I’ve come to realize, is not a puzzle to be solved but a tapestry to be experienced. It’s filled with shades of gray, contradictions, and nuance. I’ve learned to sit with uncertainty, to find peace in the fact that not everything has an immediate answer or resolution. There's always a flow, a time, a space. The concept of "right or wrong" has given way to "what is effective in this context?" Success no longer has a universal definition but instead reflects what aligns with one’s values and goals at a given time. What changed me was the realization that complexity is not chaos—it’s beauty. People are complicated, situations are multifaceted, and answers evolve. I’ve stopped trying to label everything and started asking better questions. Why and How this situation occurs? What are my Johari here? What happened for that perspective to form? I lean into curiosity and exploration, embracing the idea that understanding is a lifelong process rather than a destination.

10. The Role of Reflection

"An unexamined life is not worth living." – Socrates

Then : Reflection has always been part of my life, but in the past, it was raw, unstructured, and deeply emotional. I reflected through poetry, spontaneous musings, and unfiltered thoughts — pouring out whatever was on my mind. These reflections were often reactive, capturing my frustration, joy, or confusion in the moment without necessarily seeking deeper insights or solutions. At that time, reflection felt more like an outlet than a tool — a way to express myself rather than a means to grow. I rarely looked at the bigger picture or thought critically about patterns in my actions or decisions. It was easier to move forward without pausing too long, as stopping to reflect sometimes felt like a confrontation with my own inadequacies or uncertainties.

Now : Reflection is my compass. Whether through journaling, conversations, or quiet moments, it’s how I make sense of the chaos. It’s how I see where I’ve been and where I want to go. Borrowing from frameworks like Gibbs’ Reflective Cycle, I think about not just what happened but why it happened, how I felt, what I learned, and how I can approach similar situations differently moving forward. Reflection has shifted from being a venting exercise to a strategic tool for awareness and understanding people and the inter-personal dynamics too. It is a continuous process — on action, in action, and for action. 

Bangalore, Bengaluru, and Big Lessons

Bangalore, or as it’s officially known now, Bengaluru, is a city of contrasts. At just 10 sq km larger than Singapore but with a staggering population of 14 million, it’s easy to see why it’s nicknamed the Silicon Valley of India. The city pulls in people from across the country (and the world) who are hungry for opportunities in tech, education, and more. On the ground, the city is divided into 2 stands, one group that feels the overcrowding situation should be handled, and the other group to feel that it should be organic and allow the freedom of choice for internal migration and the city will figure out. For us, a group of students on a mission to explore Applied Sustainability, the city promised an exciting backdrop for understanding the challenges and opportunities of sustainable living in a megacity. 

A Sustainability Skeptic 

First, a confession: I’ve never considered myself a sustainability enthusiast. Let’s be real—how much difference can one person make? Isn’t it the job of big corporations to deal with waste, energy use, and pollution? Honestly, I came to Bangalore skeptical. But this trip? It made me rethink a lot. What struck me most was the sheer number of ground-up initiatives. These weren’t flashy, Instagrammable projects, but real efforts from people who saw the gap between well-written policies and the messy reality of implementation. Particularly in rural areas, it felt like people had taken the reins to solve problems their own way.

Ragikana: A Farmers Market with Heart

On Christmas Day, we visited Ragikana, a farmers’ market that felt like a breath of fresh air. It wasn’t just about buying organic veggies or pretty snacks. It was a place where farmers and consumers actually connected, bridging the urban-rural divide. The energy there was palpable—Christmas cheer blended with the warmth of a community genuinely working towards sustainable farming practices. I couldn't help but think: This is what ground-up sustainability looks like. It’s not just about eco-labels; it’s about trust, relationships, and shared purpose. Each member of the community brings in something for the rest. I see some cake-baking workshops; some offered their expert insights on topics such as "Adapted Christmas Celebration in India", "Arts", "Sustainable Living", and more; some are mere consumers to support the small scale farmers who came with limited quantity of fruits and vegetables; some are here to spread awareness of some apps they have developed for delivery of good; some just want to showcase their crafts. 

Farmers’ Struggles: Beyond the Policies

Bangalore, nestled in the state of Karnataka, is paradoxically home to one of India’s largest hubs for agricultural exports and yet grapples with severe challenges at the grassroots level. Despite its reputation for being the “Silicon Valley of India,” agriculture remains a significant livelihood for millions in Karnataka. However, the reality of farming here—and in much of India—paints a starkly different picture compared to the glossy success stories of the tech industry.

Karnataka is a leading exporter of coffee, spices, flowers, and millet. Its agricultural exports contribute significantly to the state's GDP and global trade presence. Yet, the average annual income of a farmer in Karnataka is approximately ₹84,000 annually (SGD $1,400). Compare this with India’s national average income of around ₹192,000 (SGD $3,200), and the disparity becomes glaring. This vast income gap highlights the systemic undervaluation of the agricultural sector and the challenges faced by those who are the backbone of this industry.

Underemployment: A Persistent Issue

One of the biggest issues farmers in Karnataka face is underemployment—a situation where people are employed but not working to their full potential. In agriculture, this is rampant due to several interconnected factors:

1. Seasonal Nature of Farming: Farming is inherently cyclical, with peak labor requirements during sowing and harvest seasons but long periods of inactivity in between.

2. Lack of Alternative Jobs: Many rural areas in Karnataka lack viable non-agricultural job opportunities. While Bangalore offers tech and service jobs, these opportunities rarely extend to rural communities.

3. Low Skill Diversification: Farmers and agricultural workers often lack the training needed to transition into other industries, creating a vicious cycle of reliance on low-paying agricultural work.

4. Land Fragmentation: Over generations, landholdings have been divided into smaller plots due to inheritance practices. The average farm size in Karnataka is just 1.55 hectares, making it increasingly unviable for farming. This limits farmers' ability to scale or innovate, further worsening underemployment.One of the most pressing challenges in Karnataka’s agriculture sector is land shrinkage, caused by a mix of economic, social, and environmental factors : Generational Land Division: Families divide their land among children, resulting in smaller and less productive plots over time ; Rising Debts: Many farmers take on loans to invest in crops or cover basic expenses. Poor yields, low market prices, or erratic weather often leave them unable to repay, forcing them to sell off land to settle debts, an endless debt cycle from banks and unofficial lenders, and Policies generally do not reach to them due to accesibility to the proper channel of help ; Erratic Weather and Droughts: Karnataka has been particularly vulnerable to changing climate patterns. Droughts, unseasonal rains, and rising temperatures have severely affected crop yields. For example, in recent years, the state has faced one of the highest rates of drought among Indian states.

Waste Management: Walking the Talk

Bangalore’s approach to waste management is an inspiring blend of innovation, community participation, and education. It goes beyond mere segregation into a robust system that integrates the principles of the 5 Rs: Reject, Reduce, Reuse, Repurpose, Recycle. During our visits, we saw firsthand how these principles are applied and the transformative impact they have on sustainability and livelihoods. At Swachagraha Kalika Kendra, this segregation goes further, focusing on education to ensure communities understand the value of sorting waste at the source. It has become a beacon of community-driven composting education : Interactive Sessions: Workshops teach residents how to compost kitchen and garden waste at home ; Garden Waste Management: Public gardens in Bangalore collect organic waste, which is then composted to enrich the soil, reducing the need for chemical fertilizers ; Demonstration Plots: The center uses demonstration gardens to show how compost can rejuvenate soil, promoting urban farming and community gardens. A standout aspect of Bangalore’s waste management system is the role of Rural Women in the process.Women are employed to sort dry waste, particularly plastics, into 27 specific categories. This meticulous sorting enables higher-quality recycling and reduces contamination. Many of these women come from economically disadvantaged backgrounds. Their involvement not only provides a steady income but also gives them a sense of purpose and dignity. Training programs help women learn about recycling technologies and innovative uses for sorted waste, such as turning plastics into road-building materials. Similarly, this is seen in Sunbird Straws Processing Centres and Bakahu Powder Centres too. 

Education: The True Equalizer

If there’s one thing that can transform any society, it’s education. Bangalore exemplified this idea in ways I hadn’t anticipated. From discussions about the importance of vocational training for rural youth to the role of universities in sustainability research, I saw how education can bridge the gap between policy and reality, such as "Art of Living" centre, though the questionable spirituality aspects, but amazing inititatives to empower youths and the rurals. 57 programs are offered by Art of Living, tailored to various age groups and needs, focusing on personal development, stress elimination, and holistic well-being. These includes : Transformation of Barren Land, Reviving Water Bodies, Skill Development Programs (Engineering, Solar, Drones, Mobile Repair, IT Services, etc), Project Bharat, Solar Electrification of the Campus, APEX (Achieving Personal Excellence), and more. 

It was particularly inspiring to hear about initiatives targeting women and marginalized communities, giving them access to skills and opportunities that might otherwise have been out of reach. The city’s higher socio-economic status, fueled by its booming tech and corporate sectors, has cultivated a globalized and considerate urban culture. This was evident in everyday interactions, particularly on public transport, where people refrained from loud conversations, avoided disruptive behaviors like video calls, and maintained an awareness of personal space. The metro’s women-only carriages added another layer of comfort and safety, reflecting the city’s commitment to gender inclusivity. Initiatives like the Shakti Scheme, which provides free public transport for women, have had transformative effects, empowering women from lower-income households to join the workforce, participate in civic activities, and contribute to the economy. This accessibility has boosted household incomes and promoted a more inclusive society, showcasing how education and thoughtful policies can enhance women’s agency in both public and professional spheres. Beyond transport, the city’s emphasis on gender inclusivity is evident in the safety measures and campaigns that encourage greater confidence and mobility for women.

Breaking away from group in the evenings to explore the city independently (me and my buddy) revealed Bengaluru’s unique character. Luxurious dining venues and high-end malls were bustling with professionals and families, demonstrating the city’s ability to balance its globalized image with local traditions. This cultural fusion, driven by education and economic growth, gives Bengaluru its vibrancy and distinct identity. It is a city where education transcends the classroom, shaping behaviors, fostering inclusivity, and contributing to a thriving, cohesive community. My time here made it clear that when combined with opportunity and thoughtful policies, education can transform not just individuals, but entire cities. Education’s influence extends to the city’s polished etiquette and civic responsibility. Employees from global companies like Boeing, Google, and Microsoft, frequenting upscale restaurants and shopping spaces, carry themselves with civility and respect. Public spaces, from parks to metro stations, are maintained with a sense of shared responsibility, reflecting the values of an educated and aware populace.

Mysore : A Brief Journey to the Past 

Mysore, a city steeped in history and culture, offered us a window into its rich past and vibrant present through its diverse attractions. One of the highlights was our visit to the St. Philomena’s Cathedral, a striking example of architectural and cultural fusion. Its neo-Gothic design, inspired by Cologne Cathedral, is stunning, but what stood out were the varied sculptures and artwork adorning the interior. The cathedral features a blend of Orthodox, Catholic, and even Eastern influences, a testament to the scarcity of craftsmen during its construction. Instead of rigid exclusivity, the church embraced artisans from all denominations, resulting in an awe-inspiring space that beautifully merges spiritual traditions. It serves not just as a place of worship but also as a symbol of unity and inclusivity.

Next, we explored the grandeur of the Mysore Palace, one of India’s most iconic royal residences. Built in the Indo-Saracenic style, the palace is a masterpiece of ornate architecture with its domes, arches, and intricate carvings. Historically, the palace stands as a symbol of the Wodeyar dynasty, which ruled Mysore for over five centuries. The Wodeyars were patrons of art, culture, and education, and their reign significantly contributed to the city’s prosperity and development. They championed the arts, funded public infrastructure, and played a key role in integrating Mysore into the broader fabric of modern India. Today, the palace attracts millions of visitors annually, offering a glimpse into the opulence and influence of Mysore's kings, whose contributions continue to shape the region’s identity.

At the Jaganmohan Palace Art Gallery, we delved into Mysore’s artistic heritage. Among the many treasures housed here, one particularly fascinating exhibit caught my eye: an ancient version of Indian chess, known as Chaturanga or Indian attack chess. This precursor to modern chess reflects India’s deep intellectual and cultural history, emphasizing strategy, foresight, and skill. The gallery, with its vast collection of paintings, sculptures, and artifacts, encapsulates Mysore’s legacy as a hub for creativity and innovation. It’s a reminder of how art has always been a powerful medium for storytelling and cultural preservation in this region.

Our visit to the Ranganathittu Bird Sanctuary offered a refreshing break from the city's historical grandeur, immersing us in the wonders of nature. Spanning over 40 acres, this sanctuary is a haven for migratory birds, including painted storks, pelicans, and open-bill storks. Its unique ecosystem, centered around the Kaveri River, supports diverse flora and fauna, creating a delicate balance that sustains life for both resident and visiting species. The sanctuary is a vital breeding ground for many birds and serves as a significant site for ecological conservation in Karnataka. Observing the serene interactions between the river, the birds, and the lush greenery was a humbling experience, underscoring the importance of protecting such habitats amidst the pressures of urbanization.

Mysore seamlessly blends history, art, and nature, offering a rich tapestry of experiences. Each site we visited revealed a new layer of its heritage, from its royal past to its vibrant ecosystems, leaving us with a deeper appreciation for the city’s enduring legacy.

Food: Street vs. Fine Dining

Let’s talk about food—because what’s a trip without culinary adventures?

In most cities I’ve traveled to, the best food is usually on the streets. Bangalore, though, flipped this on its head. During the first week, we explored campus eateries and street vendors, but the standout meals came from Alchemy : Contemporary Indian Cuisine, ZLB23 Speakeasy Bar where band played Bon Jovi Tribute and we had to go through the backdoor, up the lift in the kitchen, and press a suspicious floor to reveal the lcoation, and Shiv Sagar Fine Dining. Then, for the thrill of it, we had Beef Sizzling Steaks after the visit to see 1,200 cows at some GuruKul, and then had some Pork Sausages wrapped with Pork Bacon, a rare menu there. 

Why? Maybe it’s because South Indian food in Singapore’s Little India is already so authentic. Being a guide myself, I’ve tasted some of the best dosa, idli, and biryani back home. Indian food, wherever you go, retains its authenticity—it’s one of the few cuisines that migrates without losing its soul. So while the street food in Bangalore was good, it wasn’t necessarily new for me.

That being said, we have also hunted for the most unhygenic street food possible, eating Cup Corns from street peddlers, Lime Soda where the cups are laden with black layer of dust, Holige where they wash their post-cash-handling-hands in the same bucket of water to prepare the food too, and some Dosa prepared on a Gas Tawa that didnt seemed to be washed for decades. But all in all, no food poisoning no diarrhoea no major health concern. I guess in Bangalore, things are not as unclean as the stereotypes. 

Indian Hospitality: A Cultural Immersion

Our time in India was nothing short of extraordinary, largely thanks to the hospitality extended to us by the local students. From the moment we arrived, they welcomed us into their culture with warmth and enthusiasm, introducing us to experiences we might never have ventured into on our own. Indian hospitality is something else—it’s a blend of generosity, openness, and a genuine desire to share their world with outsiders.

One of the first things we noticed was how they curated our food adventures. At one restaurant, a COW casually wandered into the premises while everyone, including the staff, seemed completely unfazed. It was a surreal moment, reminding us how deeply embedded animals are in everyday Indian life. On the roads, we witnessed "Jugaad" in action—a uniquely Indian form of resourcefulness. Drivers would pull off makeshift fixes to vehicles, tie things together with ropes, or stack goods precariously on a small bike, showcasing their ingenious ability to make things work with minimal resources. Or sometimes they just wanted a chai or to go to the nature toilet (bush) HAHAHAHS! It’s chaotic, but it works, and honestly, there’s a certain beauty in that ingenuity.

Getting around was an adventure in itself. We experienced the full range of transportation—from squeezing into a tuktuk (auto) that darted through traffic like it had a death wish, to riding the surprisingly efficient metro system. On Uber Motorbikes, we saw other bikers zoomed past us with whole families balanced on a single seat, an everyday spectacle that left us wide-eyed. Despite the occasional moments of terror on the roads, the charm of it all was undeniable.

One of the highlights was breaking away from the structured itinerary to enjoy the nightlife. We danced at an Indian club (ignoring the strict campus curfew and booking a nearby hotel to avoid being caught), sang our hearts out at a Rooftop Karaoke Bar, and soaked in the buzzing energy of the city. The students’ hospitality extended beyond just showing us around—they invited us into their Home for games and sweets, and ofcoz alcohol and stuffs, creating an intimate experience that truly made us feel like part of their community. At Mysore, there was nothing going on after 10pm so we had room karaoke, dance, party and smokes, till 3am. 

Admittedly, we guys took more liberties than the 4 girls, who were understandably cautious, coming from the more sheltered environment of Singapore. While they meticulously stuck to the RAMS (Risk Assessment) guidelines, we embraced the unpredictable. From playing with wild dogs and cows to examining worms up close, we threw caution to the wind. I couldn’t help but think that being in a foreign country is about immersing yourself fully, fears and all. After all, what’s the worst that could happen? We had our travel insurance for a reason.

This trip wasn’t just about seeing a new place—it was about living it. The chaos, the warmth, the resilience, and the pure spirit of India left a mark on us. Indian hospitality isn’t just about welcoming guests; it’s about making them feel at home, part of the fabric of the culture. It’s messy, it’s unpredictable, but it’s real. And for that, I’ll always be grateful.

Vaibhav : My Indian Brother 

Among the many highlights of this trip, meeting Vaibhav stands out as a truly unforgettable experience. A master’s student specializing in sustainability, Vaibhav was a bundle of energy and enthusiasm, someone who could match me stride for stride in terms of fun and high spirits. What made him even more impressive was his well-traveled background and deep appreciation for food, particularly his expertise in biryani. From Hyderabadi to Lucknowi styles, he seemed to have a detailed knowledge of every variety, making him a foodie with a true specialty.

What I didn’t expect, however, was the connection we’d form over country music. It’s not every day you meet someone outside of the usual country music circles who shares a love for artists like Kenny Rogers. At his house, I spotted a vinyl collection that spoke volumes about his eclectic tastes, and when he claimed Rogers as his top artist, I knew I had to do something special. I ended up buying him a premium limited-edition vinyl—probably the most expensive one I’ve ever purchased. It was worth every penny, though, to honor this bubbly chap who made the trip so memorable.

One moment that perfectly encapsulates Vaibhav’s spirit was on the bus when he suddenly broke into song with "On the Rivers of Babylon." I was half-asleep at the time but immediately woke up to join him in a raucous singalong. His energy was infectious, his laughter contagious, and his zest for life unparalleled. Vaibhav is truly a gem, someone who brought joy and connection to this journey, and I’ll always remember him as one of the brightest highlights of my time in India.

El : Curious Boy stuck with me for Bangalore 

This trip wouldn’t have been as unforgettable without my buddy, El. I didn’t expect to have such a great time, especially as I’m probably the oldest in the group, and I tend to explore countries with a different lens—seeking cultural immersion rather than sticking to what’s presented on the surface. But El’s energy and curiosity added a whole new dimension to this journey. The turning point came right on the first night when he casually asked, “You want to go out of campus to explore nearby food?” That simple question marked the beginning of our shared adventure.

El’s openness to Indian food was refreshing. Being constantly exposed to it during the trip, everything felt new and exciting to him—far beyond the typical prata and butter chicken he was used to back home. His fearless approach made every meal an adventure, and his genuine enthusiasm resonated with everyone, especially the local students. By the second day, he had already struck up friendships, diving into their hospitality with open arms. Whether it was playing sports, visiting their homes, or asking about their daily routines, hobbies, and aspirations, El was eager to explore their world. He didn’t just skim the surface—he engaged deeply, from discussing side hustles to exchanging views on world politics and global finance.

Despite the seven-year age gap between us, I never felt disconnected. El’s readiness to talk about more personal topics—romance, life trajectories, social constructs—made for meaningful conversations that I truly valued. Fun fact: I learned that he’s a Grade 7 piano player, was part of a concert band playing percussion, and is quite the metalhead, with Kingslayer by BMTH being one of his favorites. Beyond these revelations, I had the chance to share my perspectives with him too, from appreciating cocktails as a craft rather than a means to get drunk, to exploring the symbolism behind art and religion.

El’s inquisitive nature and openness reminded me of another good friend, Jasper, and I couldn’t help but think how amazing it would be to bring both of them along for my planned Ancient Civilizations trip to Thailand, Vietnam, and Cambodia. El’s ability to connect with people, embrace new experiences, and dive into deeper topics makes him an incredible travel companion. This trip not only strengthened our bond but also gave me a new appreciation for exploring a country through someone else’s fresh perspective. Here’s to more adventures with El—someone who turned this journey into something truly special.

Dr Cynthia : Enabler of This Trip 

This portion is written to express my deepest gratitude and admiration for the exceptional guidance and facilitation provided by Dr. Cynthia throughout this program. Her expertise and dedication have not only enriched my experience in Bengaluru but have also profoundly shaped my understanding of the complexities and nuances of the topics we explored.

Dr. Cynthia’s ability to tactfully navigate the dynamics between the Singaporean and Indian students has been exemplary. She has seamlessly aligned expectations from guest speakers and hosts, creating an environment of mutual respect and collaboration. Her thoughtful approach to facilitation has enabled us to not only see things from different perspectives but also to dive deep into the range topics with curiosity and purpose. What I admire most about Dr. Cynthia is her remarkable ability to embody an inter-disciplinary lens. Whether examining issues from the perspective of policymakers, understanding social and informal norms, applying sociological thinking, appreciating cultural traditions, or aligning with national priorities of both Singapore and India, she has consistently broadened our horizons and encouraged us to think critically and holistically.

Under her guidance, I have been able to gain a deeper understanding of the interconnections between these diverse perspectives, helping me appreciate the intricacies of sustainable development, cross-cultural collaboration, and global priorities. Her efforts have truly framed my experience in Bengaluru as one of profound learning, growth, and immersion. I am incredibly grateful to have had the opportunity to learn from Dr. Cynthia and witness her dedication to fostering meaningful, interdisciplinary learning.